Lipid Microcapsules Promoted Neural Stem Cell Survival in the Infarcted Area of Mice with Ischemic Stroke by Inducing Autophagy.

Intracerebral transplantation of neural stem cells (NSCs) for ischemic stroke treatment has been demonstrated to be inefficient, with only <5% of delivered cells being retained. Microcapsules may be a good carrier for NSC delivery; however, the current microcapsules do not fully meet the demands for cell survival after transplantation. In the present study, we designed a strategy for the encapsulation of NSCs in a novel lipid-alginate (L-A) microcapsule based on a two-step method. The protective effect of a L-A microcapsule on oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) was investigated by using the CCK8 test, the LDH release test, and flow cytometry. Mechanisms underlying the prosurvival effect were investigated by detecting autophagy markers like P62, LC3-I, and LC3-II, and autophagy flux analysis was also performed. Lastly, the ability of the L-A microcapsule to support NSCs delivery for ischemic stroke was investigated in the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. We found that L-A microcapsules exerted a good protective effect against OGD compared with control and alginate microcapsules. The L-A microcapsules were found to promote cell survival by not only providing a "physical" barrier but also altering autophagy markers like P62 and LC3-II, which enhanced autophagy flux. This novel microcapsule was confirmed to be suitable for NSC delivery in vivo, which alleviated transplanted NSC apoptosis, reduced the infarct volume, decreased brain edema, improved neurological deficit scores, and lastly, improved survival rate. The findings of this study may provide a new method for stem cell delivery, raising the prospect that intracerebral cell transplantation may be used to treat, for instance, ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, and so on.

Transcriptomic Profile Identifies Hippocampal Sgk1 as the Key Mediator of Ovarian Estrogenic Regulation on Spatial Learning and Memory and Aß Accumulation.

Previous studies have shown that ovarian estrogens are involved in the occurrence and pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) through regulation on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and spatial memory; however, the underlying mechanisms have not yet been elucidated at the genomic scale. In this study, we established the postmenopausal estrogen-deficient model by ovariectomy (OVX). Then, we used high-throughput Affymetrix Clariom transcriptomics and found 143 differentially expressed genes in the hippocampus of OVX mice with the absolute fold change ≥ 1.5 and P < 0.05. GO analysis showed that the highest enrichment was seen in long-term memory. Combined with the response to steroid hormone enrichment and GeneMANIA network prediction, the serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 gene (Sgk1) was found to be the most potent candidate for ovarian estrogenic regulation. Sgk1 overexpression viral vectors (oSgk1) were then constructed and injected into the hippocampus of OVX mice. Morris water maze test revealed that the impaired spatial learning and memory induced by OVX was rescued by Sgk1 overexpression. Additionally, the altered expression of synaptic proteins and actin remodeling proteins and changes in CA1 spine density and synapse density induced by OVX were also significantly reversed by oSgk1. Moreover, the OVX-induced increase in Aß-producing BACE1 and Aß and the decrease in insulin degrading enzyme were significantly reversed by oSgk1. The above results show that multiple pathways and genes are involved in ovarian estrogenic regulation of the function of the hippocampus, among which Sgk1 may be a novel potent target against estrogen-sensitive hippocampal dysfunctions, such as Aß-initiated AD.

Steroid receptor coactivator-1: The central intermediator linking multiple signals and functions in the brain and spinal cord.

The effects of steroid hormones are believed to be mediated by their nuclear receptors (NRs). The p160 coactivator family, including steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC-1), 2 and 3, has been shown to physically interact with NRs to enhance their transactivational activities. Among which SRC-1 has been predominantly localized in the central nervous system including brain and spinal cord. It is not only localized in neurons but also detectable in neuroglial cells (mainly localized in the nuclei but also detectable in the extra-nuclear components). Although the expression of SRC-1 is regulated by many steroids, it is also regulated by some non-steroidal factors such as injury, sound and light. Functionally, SRC-1 has been implied in normal function such as development and ageing, learning and memory, central regulation on reproductive behaviors, motor and food intake. Pathologically, SRC-1 may play a role in the regulation of neuropsychiatric disorders (including stress, depression, anxiety, and autism spectrum disorder), metabolite homeostasis and obesity as well as tumorigenesis. Under most conditions, the related mechanisms are far from elucidation; although it may regulate spatial memory through Rictor/mTORC2-actin polymerization related synaptic plasticity. Several inhibitors and stimulator of SRC-1 have shown anti-cancer potentials, but whether these small molecules could be used to modulate ageing and central disorder related neuropathology remain unclear. Therefore, to elucidate when and how SRC-1 is turned on and off under different stimuli is very interesting and great challenge for neuroscientists.

Pericytes Regulate Cerebral Perfusion through VEGFR1 in Ischemic Stroke.

Neurons in the penumbra (the area surrounding ischemic tissue that consists of still viable tissue but with reduced blood flow and oxygen transport) may be rescued following stroke if adequate perfusion is restored in time. It has been speculated that post-stroke angiogenesis in the penumbra can reduce damage caused by ischemia. However, the mechanism for neovasculature formation in the brain remains unclear and vascular-targeted therapies for brain ischemia remain suboptimal. Here, we show that VEGFR1 was highly upregulated in pericytes after stroke. Knockdown of VEGFR1 in pericytes led to increased infarct area and compromised post-ischemia vessel formation. Furthermore, in vitro studies confirmed a critical role for pericyte-derived VEGFR1 in both endothelial tube formation and pericyte migration. Interestingly, our results show that pericyte-derived VEGFR1 has opposite effects on Akt activity in endothelial cells and pericytes. Collectively, these results indicate that pericyte-specific expression of VEGFR1 modulates ischemia-induced vessel formation and vascular integrity in the brain.

An observation of the peer-assisted learning (PAL) method in the clinical teaching of vertigo/dizziness-related diseases for standardized residency training (SRT) students in China: a randomized, controlled, multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Vertigo and dizziness (VD) are among the most frequently seen symptoms in clinics and are important for medical students, especially for those in Chinese standardized residency training (SRT). The aim of our study was to examine the PAL method's feasibility in the clinical teaching of VD-related diseases for SRT students in China. METHODS: This is a randomized, controlled, multicenter study. A total of 228 residents were invited to participate in this study, of which 198 completed the program. The students were randomized into two groups, and VD-related diseases were taught using lecture-based learning (control group) or peer-assisted learning (PAL). An examination paper and a rating scale were used to evaluate students' performance in the mastery of VD-related theoretical knowledge and clinical skills, meanwhile students' perceptions, satisfaction, and risk of burnout were also analyzed using a questionnaire. Independent-samples t-test and chi-square analysis were performed to evaluate statistical significance for continuous variables and categorical variables, respectively, using SPSS 18.0 software. RESULTS: The PAL group performed better in mastering theoretical knowledge and clinical skills than the control group. And more students believed that PAL could help improve their personal qualities such as teamwork skills. However, more students reported that PAL increased the risk of burnout. CONCLUSIONS: PAL was a suitable and effective method in the clinical teaching of some specialized diseases, especially it was recommended for students who had gained initial knowledge and skills, such as Chinese SRT students. However, we should draw attention to the increased risk of burnout if PAL is intended to be widely used in clinical teaching. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN registry, ISRCTN53773239 , 05/07/2021, retrospectively registered.

A20/Nrdp1 interaction alters the inflammatory signaling profile by mediating K48- and K63-linked polyubiquitination of effectors MyD88 and TBK1.

A20 is a potent anti-inflammatory protein that mediates both inflammation and ubiquitination in mammals, but the related mechanisms are not clear. In this study, we performed mass spectrometry (MS) screening, gene ontology (GO) analysis, and coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory cell model to identify novel A20-interacting proteins. We confirmed that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Nrdp1, also known as ring finger protein 41 (RNF41), interacted with A20 in LPS-stimulated cells. Further co-IP analysis demonstrated that when A20 was knocked out, degradation-inducing K48-linked ubiquitination of inflammatory effector MyD88 was decreased, but protein interaction-mediating K63-linked ubiquitination of another inflammatory effector TBK1 was increased. Moreover, western blot experiments showed that A20 inhibition induced an increase in levels of MyD88 and phosphorylation of downstream effector proteins as well as of TBK1 and a downstream effector, while Nrdp1 inhibition induced an increase in MyD88 but a decrease in TBK1 levels. When A20 and Nrdp1 were coinhibited, no further change in MyD88 was observed, but TBK1 levels were significantly decreased compared with those upon A20 inhibition alone. Gain- and loss-of-function analyses revealed that the ZnF4 domain of A20 is required for Nrdp1 polyubiquitination. Upon LPS stimulation, the inhibition of Nrdp1 alone increased the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α but decreased IFN-ß secretion, as observed in other studies, suggesting that Nrdp1 preferentially promotes the production of IFN-ß. Taken together, these results demonstrated that A20/Nrdp1 interaction is important for A20 anti-inflammation, thus revealing a novel mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effects of A20.

Hippocampal Aromatase Knockdown Aggravates Ovariectomy-Induced Spatial Memory Impairment, Aß Accumulation and Neural Plasticity Deficiency in Adult Female Mice.

Ovarian estrogens (mainly 17ß estradiol, E2) have been involved in the regulation of the structure of hippocampus, the center of spatial memory. In recent years, high levels of aromatase (AROM), the estrogen synthase, has been localized in hippocampus; and this hippocampus-derived E2 seems to be functional in synaptic plasticity and spatial memory as ovarian E2 does. However, the contribution of ovarian E2 and hippocampal E2 to spatial memory and neural plasticity remains unclear. In this study, AROM-specific RNA interference AAVs (shAROM) were constructed and injected into the hippocampus of control or ovariectomized (OVX) mice. Four weeks later the spatial learning and memory behavior was examined with Morris water maze, the expression of hippocampal Aß related proteins, selected synaptic proteins and CA1 synapse density, actin polymerization related proteins and CA1 spine density were also examined. The results showed that while OVX and hippocampal shAROM contributed similarly to most of the parameters examined, shAROM induced more increase in BACE1 (amyloidogenic ß-secretase), more decrease in neprilysin (Aß remover) and Profilin-1 (actin polymerization inducer). More importantly, combined OVX and shAROM treatment displayed most significant impairment of spatial learning and memory as well as decrease in synaptic plasticity compared to OVX or shAROM alone. In conclusion, the above results clearly demonstrated the crucial role of hippocampal E2 in the regulation of the structure and function of hippocampus besides ovarian E2, indicating that hippocampal E2 content should also be taken into consideration during estrogenic replacement.

Age-related CCL12 Aggravates Intracerebral Hemorrhage-induced Brain Injury via Recruitment of Macrophages and T Lymphocytes.

Circulating factors associated with aging have been shown to be involved in the development of age-related chronic and acute brain diseases. Here, we aimed to investigate the roles and mechanisms of CCL12, a circulating factor that is highly expressed in the plasma of aged rodents after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) using parabiosis and ICH models. Neurological deficit score (NDS), mortality rate, brain water content (BWC), and levels of inflammatory factors were determined to assess the degree of ICH-induced brain injury. Peripheral inflammatory cell infiltration was examined using immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. After confirming that acute brain injury after ICH was aggravated with age, we found that brain and plasma CCL12 levels were markedly higher in old mice than in young mice after ICH, and that plasma CCL12 was able to enter the brain. Using CCL12-/- mice, we showed that the degree of damage in the brain-as determined by NDS, mortality rate, BWC, levels of inflammatory factors, and numbers of degenerative and apoptotic neural cells and surviving neurons was significantly attenuated compared to that observed in old wild-type (WT) mice. These effects were reversed in CCL12-treated old mice. The detrimental effects caused by CCL12 may involve its ability to recruit macrophages and T cells. Finally, the administration of an anti-CCL12 antibody markedly improved the outcomes of ICH mice. Our results are the first to indicate that elevated peripheral CCL12 levels in old mice aggravates ICH-induced brain injury by recruiting macrophages and T cells. Thus, CCL12 may be a new target for ICH treatment.

Hippocampal overexpression of SGK1 ameliorates spatial memory, rescues Aß pathology and actin cytoskeleton polymerization in middle-aged APP/PS1 mice.

The increasing occurrence and ineffective treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has become one of the major challenges of the world. Limited studies have shown that serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) is involved in spatial memory formation and consolidation, but its role in AD-like spatial memory impairment and the related mechanisms are not clear. In this study, we first examined the age-related changes of SGK1 in the hippocampus of female APP/PS1 (AD) mice. Based on the finding and our previous finding that significant spatial memory impairment was detected in 8-month old AD mice, SGK1-overexpressing AAV (oSGK1) was constructed and injected into the hippocampus of 9-month old AD mice. One month later, the behavior alterations, Aß production and deposit as well as changes of CA1 spine density and selected actin polymerization remodeling proteins were examined. The results showed that significant decrease of SGK1 was detected in 10-month old AD mice. The spatial memory impairment, the production and deposit of Aß were reversed by oSGK1. Levels of hippocampal ADAM10 (α-secretase) and IDE (Aß degradase), actin remodeling related proteins Rictor, Rac1, Cdc42 and Profilin-1 were significantly increased after oSGK1 treatment while hippocampal BACE1 (γ-secretase) and Cofilin remained unchanged. Taken together, our findings demonstrated a pivotal role of SGK1 in the treatment of AD-related memory impairment through upregulation of non- amyloidogenic processing of APP and degradation of Aß, increase in spine plasticity related proteins, indicating increase in hippocampal SGK1 may be a potent therapeutic target against AD.

Roles of Gut Microbiota in the Regulation of Hippocampal Plasticity, Inflammation, and Hippocampus-Dependent Behaviors.

The study of the gut microbiota-brain axis has become an intriguing field, attracting attention from both gastroenterologists and neurobiologists. The hippocampus is the center of learning and memory, and plays a pivotal role in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies using diet administration, antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, germ-free mice, and fecal analysis of normal and specific pathogen-free animals have shown that the structure and function of the hippocampus are affected by the gut microbiota. Furthermore, hippocampal pathologies in AD are positively correlated with changes in specific microbiota. Genomic and neurochemical analyses revealed significant alterations in genes and amino acids in the hippocampus of AD subjects following a remarkable shift in the gut microbiota. In a recent study, when young animals were transplanted with fecal microbiota derived from AD patients, the recipients showed significant impairment of cognitive behaviors, AD pathologies, and changes in neuronal plasticity and cytokines. Other studies have demonstrated the side effects of antibiotic administration along with the beneficial effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and specific diets on the composition of the gut microbiota and hippocampal functions, but these have been mostly preliminary with unclear mechanisms. Since some specific gut bacteria are positively or negatively correlated to the structure and function of the hippocampus, it is expected that specific gut bacteria administration and other microbiota-based interventions could be potentially applied to prevent or treat hippocampus-based memory impairment and neuropsychiatric disorders such as AD.

MicroRNA-210 Promotes Accumulation of Neural Precursor Cells Around Ischemic Foci After Cerebral Ischemia by Regulating the SOCS1-STAT3-VEGF-C Pathway.

BACKGROUND: Neural precursor cell (NPC) migration toward lesions is key for neurological functional recovery. The neovasculature plays an important role in guiding NPC migration. MicroRNA-210 (miR-210) promotes angiogenesis and neurogenesis in the subventricular zone and hippocampus after cerebral ischemia; however, whether miR-210 regulates NPC migration and the underlying mechanism is still unclear. This study investigated the role of miR-210 in NPC migration. METHODS AND RESULTS: Neovascularization and NPC accumulation was detected around ischemic foci in a mouse model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion. Bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) were found to participate in neovascularization. miR-210 was markedly upregulated after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Overexpressed miR-210 enhanced neovascularization and NPC accumulation around the ischemic lesion and vice versa, strongly suggesting that miR-210 might be involved in neovascularization and NPC accumulation after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. In vitro experiments were conducted to explore the underlying mechanism. The transwell assay showed that EPCs facilitated NPC migration, which was further promoted by miR-210 overexpression in EPCs. In addition, miR-210 facilitated VEGF-C (vascular endothelial growth factor C) expression both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that miR-210 directly targeted the 3' untranslated region of SOCS1 (suppressor of cytokine signaling 1), and miR-210 overexpression in HEK293 cells or EPCs decreased SOCS1 and increased STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) and VEGF-C expression. When EPCs were simultaneously transfected with miR-210 mimics and SOCS1, the expression of STAT3 and VEGF-C was reversed. CONCLUSIONS: miR-210 promoted neovascularization and NPC migration via the SOCS1-STAT3-VEGF-C pathway.

Vinpocetine alleviate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by down-regulating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling.

Inflammatory responses play crucial roles in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is an important mediator of the neuroinflammatory response to cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Vinpocetine is a derivative of the alkaloid vincamine and exerts an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting NF-κB activation. However, the effects of vinpocetine on pathways upstream of NF-κB signaling, such as TLR4, have not been fully elucidated. Here, we used mouse middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and cell-based oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) models to evaluate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of vinpocetine treatment. The vinpocetine treatment significantly reduced mice cerebral infarct volumes and neurological scores. Moreover, the numbers of TUNEL+ and Fluoro-Jade B+ cells were significantly decreased in the ischemic brain tissues after vinpocetine treatment. In the OGD model, the vinpocetine treatment also increased the viability of cultured cortical neurons. Interestingly, vinpocetine exerted a neuroprotective effect on the mouse MCAO model and cell-based OGD model by inhibiting TLR4-mediated inflammatory responses and decreasing proinflammatory cytokine release through the MyD88-dependent signaling pathway, independent of TRIF signaling pathway. In conclusion, vinpocetine exerts anti-inflammatory effects to ameliorate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in vitro and in vivo. Vinpocetine may inhibit inflammatory responses through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway, independent of TRIF-mediated inflammatory responses. Thus, vinpocetine may be an attractive therapeutic candidate for the treatment of ischemic cerebral injury or other inflammatory diseases.

Artificial Zinc-Finger Transcription Factor of A20 Suppresses Restenosis in Sprague Dawley Rats after Carotid Injury via the PPARα Pathway.

The inhibition of inflammation and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation is an ideal strategy to suppress intimal hyperplasia after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA). Evidence has indicated that overexpression of A20 suppresses neointima formation, but its low transfection efficiency limits its application. Hence, we upregulated A20 expression via transfection of rAd.ATF (recombinant adenovirus vector of artificial transcription factor) and rAd.A20 in rat carotid arteries after balloon dilatation (in vivo) and isolated VSMCs (in vitro). In vivo, we found that after rAd.ATF and rAd.A20 transfection, A20 expression was markedly increased, whereas proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and nuclear factor κB p65 (NF-κBp65) protein levels were significantly decreased, and intimal hyperplasia and secretion of proinflammatory factors were significantly reduced when compared with empty vector and saline control groups. Most importantly, the rAd.ATF-treated group showed more significant inhibition on intimal hyperplasia and expression of PCNA than the rAd.A20-treated group. In vitro, compared with the control group, transfection of rAd.ATF and rAd.A20 significantly increased A20 expression, which upregulated the proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) level for both mRNA and protein, and reduced migration and proliferation of VSMCs and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation. Furthermore, the PPARα agonist GW6471 could partially restore the effect of A20 on VSMCs. Our findings indicate that the ATF of A20 inhibits neointimal hyperplasia and, therefore, constitutes a novel potential alternative to prevent restenosis.

CD36 Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated with Intracerebral Hemorrhage Susceptibility in a Han Chinese Population.

The CD36 gene encodes a membrane glycoprotein (type B scavenger receptor, SR-B2) that plays a crucial role in lipid sensing, innate immunity, atherogenesis, and glycolipid metabolism. In this study, we aimed to investigate the association between CD36 gene polymorphisms and intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in a Han Chinese population. We performed genotype and allele analyses for eleven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of CD36 in a case-controlled study involving 292 ICH patients and 298 control participants. Eleven SNPs were genotyped by the Improved Multiple Ligase Detection Reaction (iMLDR) method. The results indicated that the SNP rs1194182 values were significantly different between ICH group and control group in a dominant model after adjusting for confounding factors. The subgroup analysis conducted for rs1194182 showed that the allele G frequencies were significantly different between ICH patients and controls in hypertension group via a dominant model. We then analyzed the rs1194182 genotype distributions among different groups of the serum lipid groups, including BMI, TC, TG, HDL, and LDL. However, no significant differences were found in the analysis of other subgroups. Taken together, these findings indicate that rs1194182 polymorphism in the CD36 gene was associated with ICH, and genotype GG could be an independent predictor.

Mfsd2a (Major Facilitator Superfamily Domain Containing 2a) Attenuates Intracerebral Hemorrhage-Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption by Inhibiting Vesicular Transcytosis.

BACKGROUND: Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption aggravates brain injury induced by intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH); however, the mechanisms of BBB damage caused by ICH remain elusive. Mfsd2a (major facilitator superfamily domain containing 2a) has been known to play an essential role in BBB formation and function. In this study, we investigated the role and underlying mechanisms of Mfsd2a in BBB permeability regulation after ICH. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using ICH models, we found that Mfsd2a protein expression in perihematomal brain tissues was significantly decreased after ICH. Knockdown and knockout of Mfsd2a in mice markedly increased BBB permeability, neurological deficit score, and brain water contents after ICH, and these were rescued by overexpressing Mfsd2a in perihematomas. Moreover, we found that Mfsd2a regulation of BBB permeability after ICH correlated with changes in vesicle number. Expression profiling of tight junction proteins showed no differences in Mfsd2a knockdown, Mfsd2a knockout, and Mfsd2a overexpression mice. However, using electron microscopy following ICH, we observed a significant increase in pinocytotic vesicle number in Mfsd2a knockout mice and decreased the number of pinocytotic vesicles in mouse brains with Mfsd2a overexpression. Finally, using multiple reaction monitoring, we screened out 3 vesicle trafficking-related proteins (Srgap2, Stx7, and Sec22b) from 31 vesicle trafficking-related proteins that were markedly upregulated in Mfsd2a knockout mice compared with controls after ICH. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, our results suggest that Mfsd2a may protect against BBB injury by inhibiting vesicular transcytosis following ICH.

Foxp3 exhibits antiepileptic effects in ictogenesis involved in TLR4 signaling.

Inflammatory processes play critical roles in epileptogenesis, but the exact mechanisms that underlie these processes are still not completely understood. In this study, we investigated the role of forkhead transcription factor 3 (Foxp3), a transcription factor that is involved in T-cell differentiation, in epileptogenesis. In both human epileptic tissues and experimental seizure models, we found significant up-regulation of Foxp3 in neurons and glial cells. Of importance, Foxp3-/- mice were susceptible to kainic acid-induced seizures, whereas overexpression of Foxp3 reduced acute seizure occurrence and decreased chronic seizure recurrence. In addition, in vitro experiments revealed that Foxp3 inhibited neuronal excitability via glial cells and not neurons. The protective effects of Foxp3 were manifested as a reduction in glial cell activation and proinflammatory cytokine production and increased neuronal survival. Moreover, we showed that beneficial effects of Foxp3 involved the attenuation of TLR4 signaling and inflammation, which led to the inactivation of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors. These results suggest that Foxp3 in glial cells may play an antiepileptic role in epileptogenesis and may act as a modulator of TLR4. Taken together, our results indicate that Foxp3 may represent a novel therapeutic target for achieving anticonvulsant effects in patients with epilepsy that is currently resistant to drugs.-Wang, F.-X., Xiong, X.-Y., Zhong, Q., Meng, Z.-Y., Yang, H., Yang, Q.-W. Foxp3 exhibits antiepileptic effects in ictogenesis involved in TLR4 signaling.

Regulatory T cells ameliorate intracerebral hemorrhage-induced inflammatory injury by modulating microglia/macrophage polarization through the IL-10/GSK3ß/PTEN axis.

Inflammation mediated by the peripheral infiltration of inflammatory cells plays an important role in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) induced secondary injury. Previous studies have indicated that regulatory T lymphocytes (Tregs) might reduce ICH-induced inflammation, but the precise mechanisms that contribute to ICH-induced inflammatory injury remain unclear. Our results show that the number of Tregs in the brain increases after ICH. Inducing Tregs deletion using a CD25 antibody or Foxp3DTR-mice increased neurological deficient scores (NDS), the level of inflammatory factors, hematoma volumes, and neuronal degeneration. Meanwhile, boosting Tregs using a CD28 super-agonist antibody reduced the inflammatory injury. Furthermore, Tregs depletion shifted microglia/macrophage polarization toward the M1 phenotype while boosting Tregs shifted this transition toward the M2 phenotype. In vitro, a transwell co-culture model of microglia and Tregs indicated that Tregs changed the polarization of microglia, decreased the expression of MHC-II, IL-6, and TNF-α and increased CD206 expression. IL-10 originating from Tregs mediated the microglia polarization by increasing the expression of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 beta (GSK3ß), which phosphorylates and inactivates Phosphatase and Tensin homologue (PTEN) in microglia, TGF-ß did not participate in this conversion. Thus, Tregs ameliorated ICH-induced inflammatory injury by modulating microglia/macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype through the IL-10/GSK3ß/PTEN axis.

A20 Ameliorates Intracerebral Hemorrhage-Induced Inflammatory Injury by Regulating TRAF6 Polyubiquitination.

Reducing excessive inflammation is beneficial for the recovery from intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Here, the roles and mechanisms of A20 (TNFAIP3), an important endogenous anti-inflammatory factor, are examined in ICH. A20 expression in the PBMCs of ICH patients and an ICH mouse model was detected, and the correlation between A20 expression and neurologic deficits was analyzed. A20 expression was increased in PBMCs and was negatively related to the modified Rankin Scale score. A20 expression was also increased in mouse perihematomal tissues. A20-/- and A20-overexpressing mice were generated to further analyze A20 function. Compared with wild-type (WT) mice, A20-/- and A20-overexpressing mice showed significant increases and decreases, respectively, in hematoma volume, neurologic deficit score, mortality, neuronal degeneration, and proinflammatory factors. Moreover, WT-A20-/- parabiosis was established to explore the role of A20 in peripheral blood in ICH injury. ICH-induced damage, including brain edema, neurologic deficit score, proinflammatory factors, and neuronal apoptosis, was reduced in A20-/- parabionts compared with A20-/- mice. Finally, the interactions between TRAF6 and Ubc13 and UbcH5c were increased in A20-/- mice compared with WT mice; the opposite occurred in A20-overexpressing mice. Enhanced IκBα degradation and NF-κB activation were observed in A20-/- mice, but the results were reversed in A20-overexpressing mice. These results suggested that A20 is involved in regulating ICH-induced inflammatory injury in both the central and peripheral system and that A20 reduces ICH-induced inflammation by regulating TRAF6 polyubiquitination. Targeting A20 may thus be a promising therapeutic strategy for ICH.

Interleukin-23 Secreted by Activated Macrophages Drives γδT Cell Production of Interleukin-17 to Aggravate Secondary Injury After Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammation plays a key role in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced secondary brain injury, but the specific roles of peripheral inflammatory cells such as macrophages and lymphocytes remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore the roles of macrophages, T lymphocytes, and the cytokines they secrete as potential targets for treating secondary brain injury after ICH. METHODS AND RESULTS: Our results showed that peripheral macrophages and T lymphocytes successively infiltrated the brain, with macrophage counts peaking 1 day after ICH and T-lymphocyte counts peaking after 4 days. These peaks in cellular infiltration corresponded to increases in interleukin (IL)-23 and IL-17 expression, respectively. We found that hemoglobin from the hematoma activated IL-23 secretion by infiltrating macrophages by inducing the formation of toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/4 heterodimer. This increased IL-23 expression stimulated γδT-cell production of IL-17, which increased brain edema and neurologic deficits in the model mice as a proinflammatory factor. Finally, we found that sparstolonin B (SsnB) could ameliorate brain edema and neurologic deficits in ICH model mice via inhibition of TLR2/TLR4 heterodimer formation, and notably, SsnB interacted with myeloid differentiation factor 88 Arg196. CONCLUSIONS: Together, our results reveal the importance of the IL-23/IL-17 inflammatory axis in secondary brain injury after ICH and thus provide a new therapeutic target for ICH treatment.